Role of vitamin D receptor activation in racial disparities in kidney disease outcomes.

African Americans have lower 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels compared with whites. African Americans also have a higher risk of developing albuminuria and end-stage renal disease but a lower risk of death once they commence hemodialysis compared with whites. Vitamin D levels have been associated with multiple outcomes including albuminuria, progression to end-stage renal disease, and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. In this review, we examine the evidence linking 25(OH)D to outcomes and the possibility that differential 25(OH)D may explain certain racial differences in outcomes.