Exploring the interfaces between metal electrodes and aqueous electrolytes with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is one of the oldest electroanalytical techniques. With respect to the investigation of the electrode-electrolyte interfaces, it has gained wide popularity as a non-destructive, sensitive and highly informative method. A particularly attractive advantage is that it provides a unique opportunity to distinguish contributions from different processes which take place simultaneously at the electrode surface. During the past decade, considerable progress has been made in the field of impedance spectroscopy to advance data acquisition, modelling and spectra analysis. EIS has evolved from slow data acquisition procedures with semi-quantitative interpretation to innovative methodologies which allow simple operation and accurate analysis using hundreds or even thousands of spectra; these spectra can often be recorded as a result of a single experiment. Impedance spectroscopy is nowadays widely combined with other techniques, with successful application in areas ranging from analytical and physical chemistry to localized impedance microscopies. The focus of this review is on recent experimental and theoretical achievements in the characterisation of the interfaces between metal electrodes and aqueous electrolytes using EIS. Some key challenges to further increase the informative power of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy are also outlined.