Effects of nanosized titanium dioxide on the physicochemical stability of activated sludge flocs using the thermodynamic approach and Kelvin probe force microscopy.

The wide application of nanosized titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) will result in high concentrations of the molecule in the aquatic environment, especially in the influent of wastewater treatment plants. The present study focuses on the potential effect of nano-TiO2 on the physicochemical stability of activated sludge flocs after long-term exposure, on which limited information is currently available. Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) was innovatively applied to assess the surface potential of the activated sludge in situ. The physicochemical characteristics of the bioflocs with and without long-term exposure to nano-TiO2 were well elucidated by the thermodynamic approach. The results showed that the repulsive force predominated the bioflocs system as the concentration of nano-TiO2 increased, owing to the corresponding increase in the density of the negative charge. The bioflocs exposed to 100 ppm nano-TiO2 presented the strongest stability compared to the other two samples with low concentrations of nano-TiO2, which also indicated that the bioflocs with long-term exposure to nano-TiO2 had a low settlement efficiency of the corresponding activated sludge. Further, the extended Derjaugin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek (XDLVO) theory was used to explore the flocculation stability of the bioflocs system. As the concentration of nano-TiO2 increased, the ΔGiwi(LW)attraction (the van der Waals interaction) and the effective Hamaker constant decreased, the ΔGiwi(EL)(the electrostatic double-layers interaction) increasingly contributed to the interfacial repulsion, the ΔGiwi(AB)(the Lewis acid-base interaction) also exhibited a repulsive contribution to the total interaction energy and the ΔGiwi(TOT) (the total free energy of interaction) exhibited a repulsive contribution. These results are the keys for interpreting the adverse effects of nano-TiO2 on the activated sludge flocs of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).