Spatial and temporal variation in the diet of tree swallows: implications for trace-element exposure after habitat remediation.

Emerging aquatic insects play a key role in transporting aquatic contaminants into terrestrial ecosystems. Tree swallows are frequently the focus of studies examining this movement because they are thought to forage heavily on emerging aquatic insects when breeding in riparian areas. We examined the tree swallow diet to determine if trace elements from a recently remediated coal fly ash spill were moving into the terrestrial ecosystem. We collected bolus samples from adult tree swallows as they entered the nest box to feed their young. Despite strategically locating boxes in riparian areas, we found that the consumption of insects with an aquatic larval stage ranged from 28 to 75% of insects among colonies. We also found significant differences among colonies in the taxa found in bolus samples. Chironomidae (midges) were the primary emerging aquatic insects consumed by tree swallows, whereas Ephemeroptera were brought to nestlings infrequently. The consumption of insects with an aquatic larval stage, Chironomidae in particular, was positively correlated with exposure to trace elements from the spill. Bolus samples from the spill site contained greater concentrations of many trace elements compared with reference locations, but concentrations of most elements were lower than levels thought to cause reproductive impairment. These results support the hypothesis that emerging aquatic insects transport trace elements to terrestrial consumers and that Chironomidae play an important role in this movement. Our results also indicate that it is important to assess the composition of the diet and to not infer exposure to trace elements based on nesting location.