Long-term respiratory complications of congenital esophageal atresia with or without tracheoesophageal fistula: an update.

Despite early surgical repair, congenital esophageal atresia with or without tracheoesophageal fistula (EA ± TEF) has long-term effects on respiratory and gastrointestinal function. This review updates summarizes research published since 2003 on long-term respiratory complications in patients with a history of EA ± TEF. Pulmonary hypoplasia appears to not be rare in patients with EA ± TEF. Tracheomalacia is common and is associated with respiratory symptoms in childhood. Aspiration, associated with esophageal dysmotility and/or gastroesophageal reflux, may lead to reduced pulmonary function and bronchiectasis. Pulmonary function is generally normal, although lower than in control patients, and restrictive defects tend to be commoner than obstructive defects. Abnormal airway reactivity is common and, along with respiratory symptoms, is associated with atopy. However, the inflammatory profile in EA ± TEF patients based on bronchial biopsies and exhaled nitric oxide differs from typical allergic asthma. Recent studies suggest that in older patients, respiratory symptoms tend to be associated with atopy, but abnormal lung function tends to be associated with gastroesophageal reflux and with chest wall abnormalities. Early detection and management of aspiration may be important to help prevent decrements in pulmonary function and serious long-term complications in EA ± TEF patients.