Optimal management of metastatic renal cell carcinoma: current status.

The armamentarium for the systemic therapy of advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has undergone dramatic changes over the past 6 years. While high-dose interleukin (IL)-2 remains an option for highly selected good and intermediate risk patients with clear-cell histology because of durable complete responses in a small fraction of patients, cytokine-based therapy including interferon (IFN) has been supplanted by vascular-endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors. Treatment decision is initially based on prognostication of the disease. As metastatic RCC (mRCC) is commonly an indolent disease, a period of observation should always been considered. For good and intermediate risk disease, pazopanib, sunitinib or the combination of bevacizumab plus IFN are considered. Notably, recent data suggest non-inferiority for the efficacy of pazopanib compared to sunitinib coupled with a better toxicity profile. A novel VEGF receptor inhibitor, tivozanib, is expected to be approved based on improvement in PFS when compared to sorafenib in the first-line setting. The use of temsirolimus for poor risk disease is supported by a phase III trial dedicated to this group of patients. The role of cytoreductive nephrectomy in the context of VEGF and mTOR inhibitors is being studied in randomized trials. Selected patients with solitary or oligometastatic disease may be eligible for metastatectomy. Following first-line VEGF inhibitors, second-line therapy with everolimus and axitinib have demonstrated benefits in progression-free survival (PFS). One phase III trial comparing sorafenib and temsirolimus in the post-sunitinib setting showed no difference in PFS, the primary endpoint, but did show a superior overall survival for sorafenib. Sorafenib, pazopanib and axitinib have all demonstrated clinical benefit following cytokines. Therapy following first-line mTOR inhibitors remains undefined, although VEGF inhibitors have demonstrated activity in this setting. Optimal sequencing of agents and individualized therapy based on biomarkers is undergoing investigation. Today, the choice of therapy is based on patient and physician decision, which is a function of comorbidities, toxicity profiles and costs. Clinical trials evaluating novel agents and combinations should be preferred when available since agents in the current therapeutic arsenal have not yielded cures despite extending median survival to greater than 2 years. One noteworthy new class of agents that has yielded durable responses is programmed death (PD)-1 inhibitors, which target a T-lymphocyte checkpoint and are heralding a resurgence of immunotherapy. Finally, optimal therapy for non-clear cell RCC remains to be delineated, although sunitinib, everolimus and other VEGFR-TKI or mTOR inhibitors have all demonstrated modest benefit.