Malaria vaccines: looking back and lessons learnt.

The current status of malaria vaccine approaches has the background of a long and arduous path of malaria disease control and vaccine development. Here, we critically review with regard to unilateral interventional approaches and highlight the impact of socioeconomic elements of malaria endemicity. The necessity of re-energizing basic research of malaria life-cycle and Plasmodium developmental biology to provide the basis for promising and cost-effective vaccine approaches and to reach eradication goals is more urgent than previously believed. We closely analyse the flaws of various vaccine approaches, outline future directions and challenges that still face us and conclude that the focus of the field must be shifted to the basic research efforts including findings on the skin stage of infection. We also reflect on economic factors of vaccine development and the impact of public perception when it comes to vaccine uptake.