Binary outputs from unitary networks.

When considering sex ratios, we have to first define the nature of the question. Are we referring to the gonads, secondary and accessory sex structures, physiology, brain, behavior, or to all of the above elements. If these elements are not concordant, the exceptions can prove illustrative of underlying processes at both the proximate and ultimate levels. At each of these levels, "sex" is the binary outcome resulting from the modulation of conserved networks of genes, proteins, cells, organs, and, in the case of the brain, discrete nuclei. These networks operate at multiple and sequential levels that usually are linear during the lifespan, but in some instances reversals are possible. For example, the gonads arise from a single "anlagen" and, in most instances, ovaries or testes result, although ovotestes are the norm in some species and gonadal reversal a property of other species. Other sexually dimorphic structures differentiate from multiple "anlaga" by reciprocal and sex-specific atrophy/hypertrophy, typically in an exaggerated manner, although the capacity to develop structures characteristic of the opposite gonadal sex remains inherent and intact. A perspective that integrates these different properties are presented here.