Ureteral tissue engineering: where are we and how to proceed?

In the field of regenerative medicine, various types of biodegradable and nonbiodegradable scaffolds have been developed for urinary tract tissue-engineering applications. Naturally derived or synthetic materials have been tested to determine their properties and their effectiveness. However, the majority of the current literature focuses on the reconstruction of the urethra, urinary diversion, and urinary bladder, while limited data have been published regarding the use of biomaterials in ureteral reconstruction. Tissue engineering might offer alternative and less invasive therapeutic options for long ureteral defects compared with the current surgical reconstructive techniques and their potential complications. In this article, we aimed to review the literature regarding ureteral tissue engineering through a Medline search and describe new potential options for future clinical applications. We concluded that the available literature is inconclusive since the superiority of a specific scaffold has not been demonstrated and the latest developments of regenerative medicine have not been evaluated in ureteral tissue engineering yet.