Multiple evolutionary origins of bat papillomaviruses.

Infection by papillomaviruses (PVs) has been linked to different types of neoplasias, in both human and non-human hosts. Knowledge about PV diversity is essential to reliably infer the evolutionary history of these pathogens and to elucidate the link between infection and disease. We cloned and sequenced the complete genome of a novel PV, EhelPV1, isolated from hair bulbs from a captive straw-colored fruit bat Eidolon helvum (Pteropodidae, Chiroptera). We also retrieved partial sequences of the E1 and L1 genes from hair bulbs from a captive Indian flying fox Pteropus giganteus (Pteropodidae, Chiroptera). The detected virus (PgigPV1) presumably corresponded to a novel type as well. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses were conducted using a representative collection of 132 PVs. EhelPV1 belonged to the Lambda+Mu-PV crown group and was most closely related to another bat PV, MschPV2. Both fragments of PgigPV1 were placed alongside with EhelPV1. The novel PVs were phylogenetically distant from other previously described bat PVs, namely MrPV1, MschPV1 and RaPV1. We have further characterized the sequence patterns of the E2-binding sites occurring in the upstream regulatory region of Lambda+Mu-PVs. Common fingerprints within this region are shared by certain PVs. However, there is not a sharp correspondence between the repertoire of transcription factor binding sites in the viral regulatory region and host range, tissue tropism or viral life style. Our results reinforce the hypothesis that PVs have undergone an initial radiation prior to the divergence of the mammalian hosts, giving rise to the present-day PV crown groups.