Characterization of major pollution events (dust, haze, and two festival events) at Agra, India.

Total suspended particulate (TSP) samples were collected during dust, haze, and two festival events (Holi and Diwali) from February 2009 to June 2010. Pollutant gases (NO2, SO2, and O3) along with the meteorological parameters were also measured during the four pollution events at Agra. The concentration of pollutant gases decreases during dust events (DEs), but the levels of the gases increase during other pollution events indicating the impact of anthropogenic emissions. The mass concentrations were about two times higher during pollution events than normal days (NDs). High TSP concentrations during Holi and Diwali events may be attributed to anthropogenic activities while increased combustion sources in addition to stagnant meteorological conditions contributed to high TSP mass during haze events. On the other hand, long-range transport of atmospheric particles plays a major role during DEs. In the dust samples, Ca(2+), Cl(-), NO3 (-), and SO4 (2-) were the most abundant ions and Ca(2+) alone accounted for 22 % of the total ionic mass, while during haze event, the concentrations of secondary aerosols species, viz., NO3 (-), SO4 (2-), and NH4 (+), were 3.6, 3.3, and 5.1 times higher than the normal days. During Diwali, SO4 (2-) concentration (17.8 μg m(-3)) was highest followed by NO3 (-), K(+), and Cl(-) while the Holi samples were strongly enriched with Cl(-) and K(+) which together made up 32.7 % of the total water-soluble ions. The ion balances indicate that the haze samples were acidic. On the other hand, Holi, Diwali, and DE samples were enriched with cations. The carbonaceous aerosol shows strong variation with the highest concentration during Holi followed by haze, Diwali, DEs, and NDs. However, the secondary organic carbon concentration follows the order haze > DEs > Diwali > Holi > NDs. The scanning electron microscope/EDX results indicate that KCl and carbon-rich particles were more dominant during Holi and haze events while DE samples were enriched with particles of crustal origin.