Detection and molecular characterization of human noroviruses in Korean groundwater between 2008 and 2010.

RT-PCR, nucleotide sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis were performed for genotyping and molecular characterization of noroviruses isolated from Korean groundwater. Among 160 samples collected from 80 sites between 2008 and 2010, 14 samples (8.7 %) from 12 sites were positive for noroviruses (NoVs). The percentages of NoV-positive samples in 2008, 2009, and 2010 were 22.2, 3.2, and 0 %, respectively, representing a yearly decrease. GII-positive samples (n = 9, 5.6 %) outnumbered GI-positive samples (n = 5, 3.1 %). The genotypes of the GI NoVs were GI.2, GI.5, and GI.6, and the genotypes of the GII NoVs were all GII.4. One sample, HM623465, was very similar to CUK-3 and CBNU2 and two GII.4 sequences isolated from the stool of Korean gastroenteritis patients. A BLASTN search revealed several nucleotide sequences highly similar to those of NoVs isolated in this study. The original isolation sources for these similar NoVs were mostly stool (n = 731, 80.0 %) and groundwater (n = 135, 14.8 %), and all the countries from which they were isolated were almost in Asia (96.0 %); specifically, China (n = 192, 21.0 %), Japan (n = 383, 41.9 %), Korea (n = 296, 32.4 %), and other Asian countries (n = 6, 0.7 %). These results suggest that Korean groundwater might be contaminated with NoVs from the stool of infected patients and that these NoVs in turn cause new cases of gastroenteritis through a typical fecal-oral route with region-specific circulation. Therefore, it is important to properly treat sewage, which may include waterborne viruses and manage point sources in groundwater for national health and sanitation. In addition, continuous molecular surveillance remains important for understanding circulating NoVs.