Heterotopic ossification following traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury: insight into the etiology and pathophysiology.

Neurogenic heterotopic ossification (HO) is the ectopic formation of lamellar bone in non-osseous tissues following traumatic brain or spinal cord injury. The associated complications affect greatly their quality of life. This fact has shifted the focus of scientific effort towards the investigation and understanding of related risk factors and the pathophysiological mechanisms. Recent advancements include the investigation for genetic predisposition and association various biomarkers. In the present article we will analyze the current concepts on this topic, based on clinical and physiological evidence and we will discuss the potential areas for future research on this field.