Modeling the evolution of drug resistance in malaria.

Plasmodium falciparum, the causal agent of malaria, continues to evolve resistance to frontline therapeutics such as chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine. Here we study the amino acid replacements in dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) that confer resistance to pyrimethamine while still binding the natural DHFR substrate, 7,8-dihydrofolate, and cofactor, NADPH. The chain of amino acid replacements that has led to resistance can be inferred in a computer, leading to a broader understanding of the coevolution between the drug and target. This in silico approach suggests that only a small set of specific active site replacements in the proper order could have led to the resistant strains in the wild today. A similar approach can be used on any target of interest to anticipate likely pathways of future resistance for more effective drug development.