Oviparity or viviparity? That is the question….

The modes of reproduction undoubtedly represent one of the most critical life-history traits because they profoundly affect fitness and survival. The parent-offspring conflict over the degree of parental investment may be the main selective factor in the evolution of reproduction. Although the modes of sexual reproduction are remarkably diversified in animals, the traditional typology spanning three classes does not seem to be adequate to clarify the level of parental investment. Thus, lecithotrophy does not provide any information on the retention of the zygotes inside the parent's body and matrotrophy only indicates that nutrients are provided by mother but does not make any distinction between various types of maternal care. I here present a scientific typology of the reproductive modes comprising five classes: ovuliparity, oviparity, ovo-viviparity, histotrophic viviparity and hemotrophic viviparity. Based on the development stage of the zygote and on its interrelation with the parent, my classification details the degree of contrivances by which animals provide alternative parental investment in their offspring. Hence, this typology possesses a great heuristic value, both in reproduction and evolutionary biology. These different modes of reproduction do represent a sequence, with ovuliparity being the most primitive and hemotrophic viviparity the most advanced mode. Lastly, the comparative analysis of different reproductive modes in vertebrates suggests that climatic conditions (cold) could be one of the strongest selection pressures for extending egg retention and the establishment of viviparity.