A comparison of the psychological characteristics of smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers.

The present investigation was designed to ascertain differences among smokers (n = 51), ex-smokers (n = 46), and nonsmokers (n = 138) in self-control and needs for affiliation, order, and endurance. Ex-smokers were found to have significantly greater self-control, as well as considerably higher needs for order and endurance, than smokers or nonsmokers, and a markedly greater need for affiliation than smokers. Furthermore, nonsmokers exhibited significantly more self-control than smokers. It was concluded that ex-smokers, rather than being intermediate between smokers and nonsmokers, comprised a distinct group on the scales examined.