Heart failure and cardiorenal syndrome in the elderly.

In the view of the aging of the general population and particularly the aging of the dialysis population, it is of considerable interest to examine the combined effects of age and uremia on cardiovascular status. The effects of uremia per se interact with the effects of aging in cardiovascular end-organ damage and in the genesis of heart failure (HF) and cardiorenal syndrome (CRS). Structural abnormalities with fibrosis and calcification of the heart and central arteries, along with autonomic nervous system dysfunction, underlie reduced cardiac performance leading to cardiac decompensation and HF. HF in the elderly is characterized by the heart's inability to maintain an adequate cardiac output and may be the result of systolic dysfunction or reduced compliance and diastolic dysfunction. In the elderly, HF symptoms are generally light, upon admission to the hospital, while HF is sometimes in an advanced stage. The pathophysiology of CRS involves interrelated hemodynamic and neurohormonal mechanisms that in the elderly are often increased/emphasized because there is no compensatory response. The therapy of HF and CRS in the elderly with chronic kidney disease is almost entirely empirical since there are no large trials of drugs to reduce mortality and morbidity in this setting. This may lead nephrologists and cardiologists managing these patients toward a sort of "therapeutic nihilism." But this is not the attitude we should adopt in the elderly. Instead we should make a rather careful assessment of each patient and use a personalized treatment that takes into consideration the characteristics of the individual patient and his or her cardiac and renal history as well as social context.