Emerging in vitro models for safety screening of high-volume production nanomaterials under environmentally relevant exposure conditions.

The rising production of nanomaterial-based consumer products has raised safety concerns. Testing these with animal and other direct models is neither ethically nor economically viable, nor quick enough. This review aims to discuss the strength of in vitro testing, including the use of 2D and 3D cultures, stem cells, and tissue constructs, etc., which would give fast and repeatable answers of a highly specific nature, while remaining relevant to in vivo outcomes. These results can then be combined and the overall toxicity predicted with relative accuracy. Such in vitro models can screen potentially toxic nanomaterials which, if required, can undergo further stringent studies in animals. The cyto- and phototoxicity of some high-volume production nanomaterials, using in vitro models, is also reviewed.