Venous thromboembolism associated with pregnancy and hormonal therapy.

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality during or early after pregnancy and in women taking hormonal therapy for contraception or for replacement therapy. Post-thrombotic syndrome, including leg oedema and leg pain, is an unrecognized burden after pregnancy-related VTE, which will affect more than two of five women. Women with a prior VTE, a family history of VTE, certain clinical risk factors and thrombophilia are at considerably increased risk both for pregnancy-related VTE and for VTE on hormonal therapy. This review critically assesses the epidemiology and risk factors for pregnancy-related VTE and current guidelines for prophylaxis and treatment. We also provide information on the risk of VTE related to hormonal contraception and replacement therapy.