Expansion and evolution of the X-linked testis specific multigene families in the melanogaster species subgroup.

The testis specific X-linked genes whose evolution is traced here in the melanogaster species subgroup are thought to undergo fast rate of diversification. The CK2ßtes and NACβtes gene families encode the diverged regulatory β-subunits of protein kinase CK2 and the homologs of β-subunit of nascent peptide associated complex, respectively. We annotated the CK2βtes-like genes related to CK2ßtes family in the D. simulans and D. sechellia genomes. The ancestor CK2βtes-like genes preserved in D. simulans and D. sechellia are considered to be intermediates in the emergence of the D. melanogaster specific Stellate genes related to the CK2ßtes family. The CK2ßtes-like genes are more similar to the unique autosomal CK2ßtes gene than to Stellates, taking into account their peculiarities of polymorphism. The formation of a variant the CK2ßtes gene Stellate in D. melanogaster as a result of illegitimate recombination between a NACßtes promoter and a distinct polymorphic variant of CK2ßtes-like ancestor copy was traced. We found a close nonrandom proximity between the dispersed defective copies of DINE-1 transposons, the members of Helitron family, and the CK2βtes and NACβtes genes, suggesting an involvement of DINE-1 elements in duplication and amplification of these genes.

Introduction

The availability of genome sequences of related species permits to retrace the origination of new gene families [1]. New X-linked testis specific genes are thought to evolve frequently [2]–[4]. Recently, a role of the highly abundant transposable element DINE-1 (also named INE-1 and DNAREP1) in the emergence of these genes in the Drosophila genomes has been suggested [5]–[7]. Using available data sets of genome sequences from FlyBase [8], we traced the origination and amplification in the melanogaster subgroup species of the X-linked testes specific genes related to two multigene families, CK2βtes and NACβtes, encoding regulatory β-subunit of protein kinase CK2 and β-subunit of protein nascent associated complex (NAC), respectively. CK2 is a serine/threonine kinase that participates in a wide variety of cellular processes including cell differentiation, proliferation and survival [9]–[11]. The regulatory β-subunit ensures stability and specificity of CK2, and may also have functions distinct from CK2 as a component of some other protein kinases [9], [11]. Both conservative α- and β-subunits of NAC are known to contact with nascent polypeptide chains on the ribosome and contribute to the prevention of inappropriate interactions during the folding of nascent polypeptide [12]. The importance of NACβ in vivo function is emphasized by the early embryonically lethal bicaudal phenotype of a NACß mutant in D. melanogaster [13]. The testis specific functions of both CK2βtes and NACβtes proteins remain elusive.

D. melanogaster contains several paralogous CK2 protein kinase genes supposed to be involved in specification of CK2 targeting in cells [14]. The single autosomal gene on chromosome 2 encodes protein kinase CK2 regulatory β-subunit. The homologous amplified copies of the X-linked Stellate genes are normally silenced but have been shown to be expressed in the testes of D. melanogaster due to the absence of their Y-linked specific suppressors [14], [15]. The unique autosomal CK2βtes genes are located in homologous regions in the D. melanogaster, D. sechellia, D. yakuba, and D. erecta genomes according to FlyBase [8], while its presence in D. simulans requires a much more detailed analysis of convincing sequencing results. The amplified Stellate genes are found only in D. melanogaster, their derepression in testes leads to male sterility or semi-sterility owing to the abnormality of chromosome condensation and nondisjunction of sex chromosomes [16], [17]. Interest in Stellate genes has been inspired by the discovery of a RNA silencing mechanism of their repression [18]. The evolutionary significance of Stellate genes emergence remains an enigma, possibly their putative function is not limited to the modulation of protein kinase CK2 activity, but is also related to chromatin assembly [19]. Actually, protein kinase CK2 is predominantly a nuclear protein [9], Stellate protein has been detected in both cytoplasm and nucleus, and an ability of lysine methylated Stellate to mimic epitope of H3K9me3 histone has been shown [19]. This observation suggests a capacity of Stellate protein to compete with some chromatin “readers” of histone H3K9me3 mark. The emergence of the CK2ßtes family of Stellate gene has been driven by an acquisition of promoter from the NACβtes gene [20].

Here we annotated in D. sechellia and D. simulans several paralogous genes related to CK2ßtes family and designated as a new multigene family of CK2ßtes-like genes. The estimation of a similarity of these genes to the unique autosomal CK2βtes genes and Stellate genes in D. melanogaster allowed us to consider a putative CK2ßtes-like ancestor as an intermediate in the origination of Stellate genes. Although only single copy of the NACβtes gene is revealed in D. yakuba, similar patterns of the X-linked amplifications of NACβtes genes are detected in D. melanogaster and sister D. simulans/D. sechellia species. The copies of amplified NACβtes and CK2βtes gene families are localized in a restricted syntenic region (∼300–400 kb) in D. melanogaster and D. simulans/D. sechellia.

Using available genomic data sets of FlyBase [8] we demonstrated the juxtaposition of the repeated young X-linked Stellate, CK2βtes-like and NACβtes genes to polymorphic fragments of DINE-1 transposable elements related to an enigmatic Helitron type. A close nonrandom location of DINE-1s to these amplified copies hints for DINE-1 participation in the expansion of these protein-coding genes.

Results and Discussion

The structures of syntenic regions of the X-chromosomes of D. melanogaster, closely related D. sechellia/D. simulans and D. yakuba are presented in Fig. 1. These regions contain Stellate, CK2βtes-like and NACβtes genes. The synteny is clearly demonstrated by relative positions of gene bendless (ben) as well as CG12480/GM17653/GD17153/GE17116 and CG9400/GM17559/GD15853/GE16115. The annotation procedure allowed us to present orthologs CG18313/GM17676/GD17171/GE17140 at the right border of the studied syntenic region. Paralogs CG18313/CG32601/CG32598/CG18157/CG13402 have been annotated earlier in D. melanogaster as NACβtes genes [20]. We have identified in the syntenic regions of the X-chromosomes in D. simulans and D. sechellia the CK2βtes-like genes related to autosomal CK2βtes gene (CG13591) in D. melanogaster. We found the fragments of CK2βtes genes (ψCK2βtes) in D. simulans and D. sechellia at the same site where a cluster of Stellate genes is known to be emerged in D. melanogaster. The fragments of DINE-1 elements were localized in syntenic region of D. melanogaster, D. simulans and D. sechellia.

Figure 1

Scheme of syntenic X-chromosome regions comprising the CK2βtes and NACβtes multigene families in Drosophila species.

The synteny is demonstrated by vertical dashed lines indicating positions of orthologous genes. The sizes of regions are ∼400 kb in D. melanogaster (X:13890387..14275449), ∼280–350 kb in D. simulans (X:10696104..10968610)/D. sechellia (scaffold_20:533142..877095) and ∼330 kb in D.yakuba (X:8186055..8516953). Positions of genes related to gene families are depicted by pentagons indicating direction of transcription. Yellow pentagons designate NACβtes copies, blue pentagons - CK2ßtes-like copies, light blue pentagons – Stellate genes. Promoters are indicated by small rectangles fused to these signs: light yellow rectangles depict homologous Stellate and NACβtes promoters, blue rectangles depict CK2βtes-like ones. Blue rectangles designate the remnants of CK2βtes-like sequences (D. melanogaster X:14189495..14189605 [-], D. sechellia scaffold_20: 574563..574 704[-], D. simulans X:10724910..10724990[-]). A remnant of CK2βtes-like gene represented by the ORF for 37 amino acids is designated in intron of gene CG9400 in D. melanogaster. Lilac and rose arrowheads designated earlier annotated and newly detected DINE-1 elements, respectively. Orientations of arrowheads correspond to predicted direction of transcription. Positions of some orthologous genes are depicted by black arrows. In D. simulans several CK2βtes-like copies (GD24508:chrX_Mrandom_708:8043..8830[-], GD24510: chrX_Mrandom_706:885-1556[-]), NACβtes (GD24509:chrX_Mrandom_708:6003..6761[-]) and ψNACβtes gene are not attributed precisely to the studied syntenic region, these copies are enclosed in an oval frame.

The presented evolutionary tree of the representatives of the CK2βtes family. We traced the uprising of gene Stellate as a result of illegitimate recombination between the NACβtes promoter and a definite polymorphic variant of CK2βtes-like ancestor. At last we showed nonrandom associations of the remnants of DINE-1 elements with CK2βtes-like, Stellate and NACβtes genes.

The family of the NACβtes genes

The NACßtes genes in D. melanogaster (CG13402, CG18157, CG32598, CG32601 and CG18313) are indicated according to our earlier published data [20]. D. melanogaster, D. sechellia and D. simulans have several copies of highly homologous NACßtes genes but the D. yakuba genome contains only a single copy (GE17140). D. simulans and D. sechellia contain a pair of duplicated NACβtes copies similar to those in D. melanogaster, demonstrating their evolving in the common ancestor of these species. The NACβtes genes may be considered the young ones, due to their presence in the melanogaster subgroup species [20], but not in the D. pseudoobscura taking into account available data sets of FlyBase. The NACßtes pseudogenes are located adjacent to GM17553 and GD24509 in D. sechellia and D. simulans, respectively, but a complete sequence of D. simulans pseudogene is not yet available (Fig. 1, Fig. S1). The duplicated copies of NACβtes in D. sechellia are located in the same region in D. melanogaster, but in D. sechellia these genes are flanked by CK2ßtes-like copies (pair of genes GM17555/GM17556 and gene GM17552) (Fig. 1), forming a cluster of NACßtes and CK2ßtes-like genes.

The family of the CK2βtes genes

The CK2ßtes-like copies comprise a new gene family represented by the variants of CK2βtes family genes that has been amplified in the D. sechellia/D. simulans lineage. The CK2ßtes-like genes are homologous to the unique autosomal CK2ßtes gene located in syntenic regions of the D. melanogaster, D. sechellia and D. yakuba genomes. The precise genomic structure of homologous region in D. simulans is not yet solved and only a single copy of CK2ßtes-like (GD24508) is annotated here. However, some unannotated CK2ßtes-like copies in D. simulans may be also attributed to this region (Fig. 1). The testis specific transcription of a representative of this family, GD24508 in D. simulans, was shown (Fig. S2). This observation allows us to consider this gene family as a testis specific one. D. yakuba contains no CK2βtes-like genes on the X-chromosome and elsewhere in the genome.

Multiple alignment of amino acid residues of proteins and phylogenetic tree related to CK2βtes family genes (CK2βtes, CK2βtes-like and Stellate) is shown in Fig. S3. The peculiarities of amino acid substitution patterns (Fig. S3A) as well as protein phylogenetic analysis (Fig. S3B) allow us to discriminate CK2βtes-like proteins as a distinct novel subfamily, and the phylogenetic tree demonstrates the origination of Stellate genes from CK2βtes-like ancestor.

The CK2 β-subunit is remarkably conserved among species [21], [22]. All CK2βtes subunits carry at their N-termini the site S2 of autoposphorylation known to be involved in CK2β stabilization [23]. All variants of CK2βtes-like subunits preserve zinc fingers with cysteines (Fig. S3) that are responsible for dimer CK2β formation and its association with catalytic subunit [10]. CK2β is reminiscent of cyclins that are regulatory subunits of cyclin-dependent kinases and has a motif involved in regulation of cyclin degradation. Significant similarity is observed in degradation motif DKENTGLN [9] in different CK2βtes subunits, the KFNL sequence is preserved in CK2βtes subunits encoded by unique autosomal and amplified CK2βtes-like genes but not in Stellate. The acidic loop of CK2β is involved in regulation of catalytic subunit activity by modulating polyamine binding [9]. The DPEFDNED motif of acidic loop is significantly varied in CK2βtes proteins: the number of acidic residues in duplicated X-linked CK2βtes-like subunits is reduced to two residues compared to four residues in autosomal CK2βtes subunits encoded by unique genes. Possibly, these differences may be related to the peculiarities of functional modulations of the activity of these proteins.

The degree of nucleotide similarity between coding region of CK2βtes-like pairs GM17552/GM17570, GM17555/GM17552 and GD15860/GD24508 of paralogs approximates 83–86%. The extent of interspecific similarity between pair of orthologous copies GD15860/GM17570 and GD24508/GM17552 approximates 93% and 95%, respectively. Two paralogs, GM17552 and GM17556, in D. sechellia as well as the ortholog GD24508 in D. simulans are characterized by quite similar patterns of nucleotide substitutions (Fig. 1, Fig. S4). This similarity may be explained by duplication of the ancestor gene GM17552 and formation of a new copy GM17556 in D. sechellia. We found two practically identical CK2βtes-like copies in D. sechellia (GM17557a, GM17557b) separated by a sequence containing DINE-1 fragments (Fig. 1, Fig. S4). We also detected a fragment of CK2βtes-like gene in D. sechellia and a vestige of its presence in D. simulans in a syntenic site where Stellate cluster has been formed in D. melanogaster (Fig. 1, Fig. S4).

Origination of gene Stellate, a new variant of the CK2βtes gene family

The coding region of testis specific Stellate genes in D. melanogaster are homologous to the unique autosomal CK2βtes gene [14], [15], but Stellate precursor has acquired a promoter region from the NACβtes gene [20]. A careful comparison of nucleotide sequences of Stellate and CK2βtes-like genes in D. sechellia and D. simulans revealed the shared diagnostic sequence stretch between Stellates and orthologs GD15860/GM17570. This sequence is missed in all the other CK2βtes-like copies (Fig. 2). This observation allows us to consider the ancestor GD15860/GM17570-like copy to be a partner of illegitimate recombination with NACßtes gene (Fig. 2). The CK2βtes-like genes in D. simulans/D. sechellia (GD15860/GM17570) and NACßtes (CG13402) in D. melanogaster are located precisely at the same sites adjacent to orthologs GD17153, GM17653 and CG12480, respectively (Fig. 1). We suppose that the ancestor genome contained the juxtaposed CK2βtes-like and NACβtes genes at this site and such an arrangement allowed for recombination between these genes ensuring the emergence of the Stellate precursor copy.

Figure 2

Recombination between the ancestor CK2βtes-like gene (GD15860 or GM17570) and NACβtes promoter region.

Signature sequence of putative CK2βtes-like partner is designated in bold italics. The distances in nucleotides from the start of signature sequence and ORF start are indicated in brackets. Broken line shows the site of fusion of the CK2βtes-like and NACβtes sequences as a result of recombination. The tree represents the similarity of the nucleotide sequences in the selected box measured as the number of base differences [42] and was constructed using the UPGMA method [43]. The percentage of replicate trees in which the associated sequence clustered together in the bootstrap test (500 iterations) are shown next to the branches. Branches corresponding to partitions reproduced in less than 50% bootstrap replicates are collapsed.

The location of the CK2ßtes-like pseudogene in D. sechellia coincides with the site of the emergence of tandemly repeated Stellate cluster (Fig. 1). We propose that evolutionary diversification of genes related to CK2ßtes family has been occurred specifically in this specific region of the ancestor genome. These events appear to be quenched in D. simulans/D. sechellia lineage, but have led to the formation of Stellate cluster in D. melanogaster. The similarity of the tandemly repeated ORFs of novel young Stellate genes (2,5% divergency), which may be maintained by an unknown mechanism of homogenization [24], [25], is significantly higher than the extent of similarity of the homologous more ancient CK2ßtes-like copies in D. sechellia/D. simulans (Fig. S3, Fig. S4).

We detected an expansion of genes CK2ßtes and NACßtes by duplications. The usual fate of a gene duplicate is pseudogenization, but that has not occurred for most amplified NACβtes and CKβ2tes-like copies. Only one of six NACßtes copies in D. melanogaster is a pseudogene, located on the X-chromosome outside of this syntenic region, and only one CK2βtes-like pseudogene of six undamaged CK2βtes-like genes in D.sechellia is observed. Thus most duplicate copies remain functional.

To summarize the obtained data, we present a chronology of the events of the NACβtes and CK2βtes-like genes amplification as well as Stellate origination related to the evolutionary tree of melanogaster group species (Fig. 3). It is evident that amplification events of NACβtes genes and insertion of a precursor of CK2βtes-lik/Stellate| genes on the X-chromosome have been occurred in the common ancestor of D. melanogaster, D. simulans and D. sechellia. The CK2βtes-like and NACβtes genes recombination that has led to the emergence of the Stellate genes is supposed to be proceeded in an immediate ancestor of D. melanogaster. Amplification of the CK2βtes-like genes has been originated in the common ancestor of D. simulans and D. sechellia.

Figure 3

Fate of multigene families in the course of the divergence of melanogaster group species.

DINE-1 transposons and expansion of the CK2βtes and NACβtes genes

Most genes from the CK2βtes-like and NACβtes families are flanked by DINE-1 copies (Fig. 1). It has been reported that the evolution of new genes in Drosophila genomes is often associated with the abundant DINE-1 transposons [6], [7], [26] related to the enigmatic Helitron family of transposable elements [27]–[34]. Our results support this view, providing examples of nonrandom DINE-1s localization near the amplified members of multigene families evolved in the course of evolution of the melanogaster subgroup genomes. The estimation of association of paralogs with DINE-1 elements in D. melanogaser argues in favor of this view: 1180 genes grouped in 344 paralog families are known in D. melanogaster, and the fraction of paralogs having at least one DINE-1 within 3 kb flanking sequences is significantly higher than can be expected by chance (243 vs. 156, P-value<0.005).

DINE-1 transposons are thought to have invaded the Drosophila genome before the diversification of the melanogaster subgroup [27], [35]. It seems that DINE-1 has gone through multiple independent cycles of activation and suppression [26]. These elements were suggested to be active and then silenced in the common ancestor of melanogaster subgroup species. D. yakuba is the only species showing evidence of a second, recent transpositional burst [35]. D. melanogaster and D. sechellia/D. simulans contain highly polymorphic DINE-1 copies represented by the remnants of parent copies. The absence of nearly identical Helitrons at different loci in one genome indicates that these elements have been silenced for a long time and have undergone significant disruption processes [35]. Nevertheless, the analysis of the generalized structures of DINE-1 sequences from 12 Drosophila genomes allowed the authors to discriminate some consensus regions including 5′- and 3′-subterminal inverted repeats, a core, and a 3′-terminal region containing a stem-loop structure that is supposed to be involved in the termination of DINE-1 replication [26]. Using this consensus we were able to detect several profoundly damaged DINE-1 copies in D. melanogaster, D. sechellia and D. simulans, adjacent to genes related to two studied multigene families (Fig. 1).

Alignment of nucleotide sequences of DINE-1 copies and D. melanogaster consensus sequence [26] is shown in Fig. 4A. Although there are no extended shared regions between some copies (for example, between INE2976 and INE2978), their relation to DINE-1 is clearly traced by a comparison with the consensus sequence [26]. The relation of simINE_ben to DINE-1s is validated by its comparison to the earlier version of DINE-1 consensus [36] (Fig. 4B). The vestiges of DINE-1s flanking NACβtes duplications are detectable in both D. sechellia and D. simulans (Fig. 4A), confirming the presence of DINE-1s in the common ancestor of D. melanogaster and D. sechellia/D. simulans. The CK2βtes-like solo copies (GM17570 and GD15860) as well as the duplicated ones are located adjacent to damaged DINE-1 sequences in D. simulans/D. sechellia (Fig. 1, Fig. 4, Table S1) at the distances not exceeding ∼200–1000 bp. Interestingly, the ψNACβtes (CR42877) located at a distance of ∼1 Mb from the studied region in D. melanogaster is also juxtaposed to a DINE-1 copy.

Figure 4

Multiple alignment of DINE-1copies in syntenic regions of D. melanogaster and D. simulans/D. sechellia.

(A) Alignment of known and novel DINE-1 copies with D. melanogaster DINE-1 consensus sequence (DINEYang) [26]; consensus regions are designated according to [26]; (B) Alignment of the simINE_ben and DNAREP1_DM consensus sequence [36].

Two non-homologous fragments of DINE-1 flank the Stellate cluster (Fig. 1, Fig. 4A). The nucleotide sequence of the cluster including the distal marginal Stellate copy (CG33247), which is distinct in its 3′-noncoding region from the adjacent homogeneous tandem Stellate repeats, is identical to the “Stellate orphon” (Ste12D OR) located near the ben gene (Fig. 1). The observed identity of Ste12D OR and marginal Stellate copy (CG33247) in cluster (Fig. S3) allows us to propose the role of DINE-1s in duplication of Ste12D OR followed by its local amplification to generate the Stellate cluster. While the sequences of the orphon and marginal Stellate copies are identical to each other, the adjacent DINE-1 copies (INE1972 and INE2968) contain similar 3′-stem-loop sequences, but have been deeply disrupted in the rest of the DINE-1 sequence. We propose that diverged DINE-1 copies may participate in the ancestor genomes causing non-allelic recombination that is capable to ensure reshuffling of protein coding genes. Alternatively, DINE-1 sequences may be prone to breakages followed by illegitimate recombination [6]. Thus DINE-1 participation in evolution of multigene families remains to be mysterious.

While the precise testis specific functions of the members of both multigene families remain unknown, positive selection has been shown for NACßtes genes [37]. At the same time, the involvement of DINE-1 in duplication of the testis specific kep1 gene followed by formation of a young gene implicated in regulation of the Y-linked male fertility genes has been demonstrated [7]. The elucidation of CK2ßtes and NACßtes gene functions in testes will help to understand whether there is an evolutionary benefit to their expansion and coupled evolution in Drosophila species.

Materials and Methods

The gene annotation of D. melanogaster (r5.35), D. sechellia (r1.3), D. simulans (r1.3) and D. yakuba (r1.3) is according to FlyBase (http://flybase.org/). The degree of nucleotide similarity between coding regions of CK2βtes family genes was evaluated by BLAST (v. 2.2.26) [38]. All alignments were performed by ClustalW implemented in Vector NTI program (Invitrogen).

The identification of novel DINE-1s in the D. simulans/D. sechellia genomes was performed by BLAST (v. 2.2.21) [38] using the DINE-1 consensus sequences [26], [36] as queries. The found candidate fragments of DINE-1s copies were additionally reverse BLASTed against D. melanogaster genome assembly to check if they are matched to known INE-1 repeats only. The evolutionary history of proteins related to CK2βtes family was inferred by using the Maximum Likelihood method based on the JTT matrix-based model [39]. All positions containing gaps and missing data were eliminated. The resulted tree is a bootstrap consensus tree inferred from 500 replicates [40]. Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA5 [41].

The list of D. melanogaster paralogs was fetched from HomoloGene NCBI database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/homologene). The expected number of paralogs with nearby DINE-1s was calculated as a possibility to find the DINE-1 near the gene (total number of DINE-1s located within 3 kb of RefSeq gene flanks divided to the total number of all RefSeq genes) magnified to the total number of paralogs. Statistical significance of difference between the expected and observed numbers of paralogs were checked by Chi-square test. The genes and DINE-1s on chromosomes U and Uextra were not taken into account.

RT-PCR was carried out using RNA from testes, heads and carcasses of adult flies of D. simulans (stock 199 from Bloomington Stock Center). Total RNA was extracted by Trizol reagent (Invitrogene), and first strand cDNA synthesis was performed by using oligo(dT) primer and SuperScript II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen). Sequences of the used primers are 5′-GCTGTAACGACGTCTTCAAGC-3′ (GD24508_F) and 5′-ATTCGCAATCGAGGACTCGC-3′ (GD24508_R). The PCR products were sequenced for verification of their specificity.

Pair alignment of the gene and pseudogene sequences of . ψNACßtes is localized in D. sechellia scaffold_20:807538..808222[-].

(EPS)

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RT-PCR validation of testis expression of - GD24508 gene in . Lanes: 1, 100 bp marker; 2, total DNA; 3, 4 and 5, RNA from testes, heads, and carcasses of adult males, respectively. Specificity of PCR products was confirmed by sequencing. Designated primers flank second small intron (∼50 nt).

(EPS)

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Analysis of proteins related to CK2βtes family. (A) Multiple alignment of CK2βtes proteins. Black spots depict serine phosphorylation sites, asterisks depict zinc-finger cysteine residues. GE11447, GM11826 and CG13591 are autosomal unique CK2βtes genes in D. yakuba, D. sechellia and D. melanogaster, respectively. (B) Molecular phylogenetic analysis of CK2βtes proteins inferred by Maximum Likelihood method. The percentage of replicate trees in which the associated proteins clustered together in the bootstrap test is shown near the branches. Initial tree for the heuristic search were obtained automatically as follows: when the number of common sites was <100 or less than one fourth of the total number of sites, the maximum parsimony method was used; otherwise BIONJ method with MCL distance matrix was used. The tree is drawn to scale, with branch lengths measured in the number of substitutions per site. There were a total of 154 positions of the 11 amino acid sequences in the final dataset.

(EPS)

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Multiple alignment for nucleotide sequences encompassing exon1, intron and a fragment of exon 2 of genes. The designations of genes are the same as in Fig. 1.

(EPS)

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Location of and nearby genes.

(PDF)

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