Neurobiological perspective of spasticity as occurs after a spinal cord injury.

In this review we use the term spasticity to mean the generation of abnormal patterns of forces that are generated involuntarily. It is clear that spasticity can have both detrimental and beneficial effects on the neuromuscular system of the affected individuals. Muscle spasticity routinely occurs after a spinal cord injury and other neurological disorders. Although often studied as if there was a single mechanism associated with this phenomenon, it is clear that there are multiple mechanisms having both neural and muscular components, particularly when such terms also are applied to other neuromotor disorders. The aims of this review are to describe the neural and muscular adaptations that are associated with spasticity, highlight the major possible mechanisms producing spasticity, and discuss the role of selected pharmacological interventions in controlling spasticity. Spasticity appears to be related to altered membrane channel and receptor properties that are primarily associated with an increase in the excitability of spinal neurons, resulting in abnormal (in the intensity and combination of muscles activated) contractions that are generated involuntarily. While most of the efforts to understand the etiology of spasticity have focused on motoneurons, it is likely that spinal interneurons play a central role as well as the mechanical properties of muscle fibers and associated connective tissues. A number of pharmacological interventions have been used in attempts to suppress spasticity with varying results, but concomitant with suppressed muscle activation, there can be significant side effects including a reduction in the control of movement.