Hearing in birds: what changes from air to water.

We reviewed what is known about hearing in birds, including the effects of anthropogenic noise, to speculate on the nature of underwater hearing in diving birds. Taking into consideration changes inhuman hearing underwater, the effects of changes in middle ear pressure on hearing in humans, and the protective effects against acoustic overexposure in birds from changes in middle ear pressure, we suggest that if similar patterns hold for diving birds, they may not hear well underwater. Moreover,the frequency of best hearing sensitivity may shift to frequencies below 2 and 4 kHz. Trapped air may allow the middle ear cavity of birds to function much as the swim bladder functions in fish.Diving birds present important auditory and environmental issues. To resolve these issues properly requires comparative anatomical investigations of the middle and inner ears of diving birds.More importantly, behavioral measures of hearing in diving birds must be conducted both in air and in water. Finally, behavioral studies of these animals in their natural habitats are required to deter-mine whether they use sound underwater for communication, foraging, predator avoidance, or other behaviors.