Acute and sub-lethal effects in juvenile Atlantic salmon exposed to low μg/L concentrations of Ag nanoparticles.

Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NP) are components in numerous commercial products and are discharged into the environment in quantities that are largely unknown. In the present study, juvenile Atlantic salmon were exposed to 1, 20, and 100 μg/L (48 h, static renewal) of a commercially available Ag-NP colloidal suspension in natural (soft) lake water. A solution of AgNO(3) containing 20 μg/L Ag(I) ions was also included to discriminate the effect of NPs from that of ionic silver. Furthermore, the commercial Ag-NP suspension was compared to an in-house synthesised colloidal NP suspension prepared from AgNO(3) and NaBH(4) in citrate buffer. The size distribution of Ag in all exposure solutions was characterised by 0.22 μm filtration and 10 kDa hollow fibre cross-flow ultrafiltration in combination with ICP-MS. All exposures were characterised by a relatively high proportion of Ag-NP in the colloidal size fraction 3-220 nm. For assessment of biological effects, acute toxicity, gill histopathology, blood plasma parameters (Na, Cl, glucose, haemoglobin), and gene expression of a selection of gill biomarkers were measured. Results showed that the gills accumulated Ag in all exposure groups apart from the fish exposed to 1 μg/L Ag-NP. Accumulated Ag caused concentration-dependent response increases in general stress markers such as plasma glucose and gill gene expression of heat shock protein 70. Furthermore, induction of the metallothionein A gene indicated that Ag had been internalized in the gills, whereas a concentration-dependant inhibition of Na/K ATPase expression indicated impaired osmoregulation at as low as 20 μg/L concentrations of Ag-NP. The commercial Ag-NP suspension caused acute gill lamellae necrosis at high concentrations (100 μg/L), potentially giving rise to the substantial (73%) fish mortality at this concentration. The two different Ag-NP preparations gave comparable results for several endpoints measured, but differed in MT-A induction and mortality, thus emphasising the variation in effects that may arise from different Ag-NP preparations.