Nerve mapping for prostatectomies: novel technologies under development.

Prostatic neuroanatomy is difficult to visualize intraoperatively and can be extremely variable. Damage to these nerves during prostatectomies may lead to postoperative complications such as erectile dysfunction and incontinence. This review aims to discuss the prostatic neuroanatomy, sites of potential nerve damage during a prostatectomy, and nerve-mapping technologies being developed to prevent neural injury. These technologies include stimulation, dyes, and direct visualization. Nerve stimulation works by testing an area and observing a physiologic response but is limited by the long half-life for an erectile response; examples include CaverMap, ProPep, and optical nerve stimulation. Few nerve dyes have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) because of the extensive testing required; examples of nerve dyes include compounds from Avelas and General Electric, fluorescent cholera toxin subunit B, indocyanine green, fluorescent inactivated herpes simplex 2, and Fluoro-Gold. Direct visualization techniques have a simpler FDA approval process; examples include optical coherence tomography, multiphoton microscopy, ultrasound, coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering. Many researchers are developing several novel technologies that can be categorized as stimulation based, dye-based, or direct visualization. As of yet, none has shown clear evidence to improve surgical outcomes and consequently lack wide adoption. Further development of these technologies may lead to improved complication rates after prostatectomies. Clinically, some technologies have demonstrated utility in predicting the development of complications. By using that information, more aggressive rehabilitation programs may lead to improved long-term function. These technologies can also be applied for research to improve our knowledge of the neuroanatomy and physiology of erection and incontinence.