Biosensing using dynamic-mode cantilever sensors: a review.

Current progress on the use of dynamic-mode cantilever sensors for biosensing applications is critically reviewed. We summarize their use in biosensing applications to date with focus given to: cantilever size (milli-, micro-, and nano-cantilevers), their geometry, and material used in fabrication. The review also addresses techniques investigated for both exciting and measuring cantilever resonance in various environments (vacuum, air, and liquid). Biological targets that have been detected to date are summarized with attention to bio-recognition chemistry, surface functionalization method, limit of detection, resonant frequency mode type, and resonant frequency measurement scheme. Applications published to date are summarized in a comprehensive table with description of the aforementioned details including comparison of sensitivities. Further, the general theory of cantilever resonance is discussed including fluid-structure interaction and its dependence on the Reynolds number for Newtonian fluids. The review covers designs with frequencies ranging from ∼1 kHz to 10 MHz and cantilever size ranging from millimeters to nanometers. We conclude by identifying areas that require further investigation.