From risk factors to structural heart disease: the role of inflammation.

Elevated levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines and adipokines have been repeatedly associated with increased risk for clinically manifest (Stage C) heart failure in large cohort studies. However, the role of low-grade, subclinical inflammatory activity in the transition from risk factors (Stage A heart failure) to structural heart disease (Stage B heart failure) is less well understood. Recent evidence suggests that chronic low-grade inflammatory activity is involved in most mechanisms underlying progression of structural heart disease, including ventricular remodeling after ischemic injury, response to pressure and volume overload, and myocardial fibrosis. Inflammation also contributes to progression of peripheral vascular changes. 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.