Spirituality and health: is there a relationship?

The role of spiritual and religious factors in health, viewed from a scientific perspective, has been yielding interesting if not intriguing results. In general, studies have reported fairly consistent positive relationships with physical health, mental health, and substance abuse outcomes, mostly using cross-sectional or prospective designs. Some spiritual or religious factors, however, have failed in some studies to demonstrate significant outcomes. Empirical relationships have been commonly based on only a few questionnaire items. Adequate controls for possible moderating or confounding factors that could explain health outcomes have often been missing. A healthy skepticism seems called for, given the need to clarify and refine concepts, such as spirituality; to develop comprehensive assessments; and to conduct experimentally designed studies. Although the overall evidence is promising enough to warrant careful and expanded study, the need for a methodological pluralism in research and for cultural sensitivity is recommended.