Neurocircuitry of stress integration: anatomical pathways regulating the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the rat.

The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis is recruited by the organism in response to real or perceived threats to homeostasis ("stress"). Regulation of this neuroendocrine system is accomplished by modulation of secretory tone in hypophysiotrophic neurons of the medial parvocellular paraventricular nucleus. Excitation of these neurons is mediated by several sources: direct (and perhaps indirect) inputs from brainstem neurons regulating autonomic tone/arousal; circumventricular organs monitoring blood and CSF constituents; and local-circuit neurons within the hypothalamus and basal forebrain. The latter are predominantly GABAergic; notably, these areas are targets for descending GABAergic input from limbic structures, and may promote PVN secretory activity via disinhibition. Neurosecretory paraventricular nucleus neurons are inhibited by glucocorticoid-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Glucocorticoid negative feedback appears to act both locally and in extrahypothalamic loci, and is likely integrated in a region- and stressor-specific manner. Inhibitory input to the medial parvocellular paraventricular nucleus emanate predominantly from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and hypothalamus, and are likely regulated by neuroendocrine homeostats. Descending limbic inhibitory information appears to act through excitation of these inhibitory inputs. Overall, integration of stressful information is a multi-faceted process integrating prior experience and real or anticipated homeostatic disruption into appropriate activation and deactivation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.