New erythropoiesis-stimulating agents and new iron formulations.

Today, erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs), together with iron supplementation, are the main tool for anemia correction in chronic kidney disease patients. Over the past decades, a number of attempts have been made to modify the erythropoietin molecule in order to improve its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. More recently, small peptides, which are unrelated to erythropoietin but bind to the same receptor, have been developed. In addition to this, other strategies to stimulate erythropoiesis have been followed, such as activin inhibition or stabilization of hypoxia-inducible transcription factors. Interestingly, the latter have the advantage of being administered orally. New iron molecules, such as ferumoxytol, ferric carboxymaltose and iron isomaltoside 1000, have recently been marketed. These new agents can administered at high doses while releasing minimal free iron. Their safety profile is good, but long- term post- marketing data are still needed to evaluate the occurrence of rare adverse events.