The burden of cardiovascular risk in chronic kidney disease and dialysis patients (cardiorenal syndrome type 4).

Type 4 cardiorenal syndrome is a growing societal problem as the aging population, with increasing incidence of chronic kidney disease (CKD), diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and other cardiovascular risks, leads to higher numbers of individuals suffering the complications of this bidirectional disorder. In this review, the immense burden of cardiovascular risk faced by patients on dialysis, as well as lesser degrees of CKD, will be examined, with emphasis on rates of acute coronary syndrome/coronary insufficiency, congestive heart failure/left ventricular hypertrophy, and cardiac arrhythmia/sudden cardiac death.