Disorders of the pupil.

Pupil size is determined by the interaction of the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous system. The parasympathetic system conducts the light reaction with its major center in the dorsal midbrain. The sympathetic nervous system acts either directly on the dilator muscle (peripherally) or centrally by inhibiting the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. Psychosensory reactions are transmitted via the sympathetic system. The afferent input of the light reflex system in humans is characteristically wired, allowing a detailed analysis of a lesion of the afferent input. Even in humans a subgroup of ganglion cells containing melansopsin plays an important role as a light sensor for the pupillary system. To diagnose normal pupillary function, pupils need to be isocoric and react bilaterally equally to light. Anisocoria indicates a problem of the efferent pupillary pathway. Pupillary disorders may involve the afferent pathways (relative afferent pupillary defect) or the efferent pathways. Physiological anisocoria is a harmless condition that has to be distinguished from Horner's syndrome. In this case pharmacological testing with cocaine eye-drops is helpful. Disorders of the parasympathetic system will impair the light response. They include dorsal midbrain syndrome, third-nerve palsy, and tonic pupil. Tonic pupils are mainly idiopathic and do not need imaging. Disorders of the iris, including application of cholinergic agents, need also to be considered in impaired pupillary light reaction.