Neurologic bases for comorbidity of balance disorders, anxiety disorders and migraine: neurotherapeutic implications.

The comorbidity among balance disorders, anxiety disorders and migraine has been studied extensively from clinical and basic research perspectives. From a neurological perspective, the comorbid symptoms are viewed as the product of sensorimotor, interoceptive and cognitive adaptations that are produced by afferent interoceptive information processing, a vestibulo-parabrachial nucleus network, a cerebral cortical network (including the insula, orbitofrontal cortex, prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex), a raphe nuclear-vestibular network, a coeruleo-vestibular network and a raphe-locus coeruleus loop. As these pathways overlap extensively with pathways implicated in the generation, perception and regulation of emotions and affective states, the comorbid disorders and effective treatment modalities can be viewed within the contexts of neurological and psychopharmacological sites of action of current therapies.