β-Adrenergic Receptor Subtypes in the Urinary Tract.

Within the urinary tract, β-adrenergic receptors (AR) are found largely on smooth muscle cells but are also present, at least in the bladder, in the urothelium and on afferent nerves. Our understanding of β-AR subtype expression and function is hampered by a lack of well-validated tools, particularly with regard to β(3)-AR. Moreover, the β-AR subtypes involved in a specific function may differ between species. In the ureter, β-AR can modulate pacemaker activity and smooth muscle tone involving multiple subtypes. In the human bladder, β-AR promote urine storage. Bladder smooth muscle relaxation primarily involves β(3)-AR, and the agonists selective for this subtype are in clinical development to treat bladder dysfunction. While prostate and urethra also express β-AR, the overall physiological role in these tissues remains unclear.