Alternative electron flows (water-water cycle and cyclic electron flow around PSI) in photosynthesis: molecular mechanisms and physiological functions.

An electron flow in addition to the major electron sinks in C(3) plants [both photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) and photorespiratory carbon oxidation (PCO) cycles] is termed an alternative electron flow (AEF) and functions in the chloroplasts of leaves. The water-water cycle (WWC; Mehler-ascorbate peroxidase pathway) and cyclic electron flow around PSI (CEF-PSI) have been studied as the main AEFs in chloroplasts and are proposed to play a physiologically important role in both the regulation of photosynthesis and the alleviation of photoinhibition. In the present review, I discuss the molecular mechanisms of both AEFs and their functions in vivo. To determine their physiological function, accurate measurement of the electron flux of AEFs in vivo are required. Methods to assay electron flux in CEF-PSI have been developed recently and their problematic points are discussed. The common physiological function of both the WWC and CEF-PSI is the supply of ATP to drive net CO(2) assimilation. The requirement for ATP depends on the activities of both PCR and PCO cycles, and changes in both WWC and CEF-PSI were compared with the data obtained in intact leaves. Furthermore, the fact that CEF-PSI cannot function independently has been demonstrated. I propose a model for the regulation of CEF-PSI by WWC, in which WWC is indispensable as an electron sink for the expression of CEF-PSI activity.