Role of various cytokines and growth factors in pubertal development.

Historical data suggest that body composition is intricately involved in pubertal development. Progression through puberty is dependent on the interaction between the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor-1 (GH-IGF-1) axis, reproductive and metabolic hormones as well as pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines which induce alterations in feedback mechanisms and therefore mediate body composition and growth. Simultaneous increases in GH and IGF-1, and the concomitant changes in the hormonal milieu (i.e. reproductive hormones, testosterone and estrogen, and insulin)are the major contributors to anabolic effects seen throughout the pubertal transition, and are affected by various factors including (but not limited to) energy status and body composition. Orexigenic agents (i.e. ghrelin and leptin) also play a role at the level of the hypothalamus affecting not only energy intake, but also pubertal onset and progression. Effects of cytokines, many of which may be considered catabolic, extend beyond their traditionally viewed role involving the immune system, accompanying reproductive maturity further regulating aspects of energy and bone metabolism. As such, the signal(s) initiating the hypothalamic response that triggers puberty is likely reliant on a number of neural, metabolic and endocrine networks, all of which are at least partially influenced by pubertal growth factors, and act independently, antagonistically and/or synergistically to regulate anabolic pathways, therefore modifying body composition trajectory and growth during adolescence.