Upper extremity access for renal artery stenting: radial, brachial and axillary access: how to do them safely and pitfalls to avoid.

This manuscript traces the history of changes in preferred upper extremity puncture sites for renal artery stenting as our understanding of anatomy, techniques, technology and pharmacology, each separately and their confluence, has improved. A very detailed description of each technique is beyond the scope of this review; the references should allow the reader to readily access this information.