Biotransport phenomena in freezing mammalian oocytes.

Water transport across the cell plasma membrane and intracellular ice formation (IIF)-the two biophysical events that may cause cell injury during cryopreservation-were studied by cryomicroscopy and modeling using mammalian (Peromyscus) oocytes. Unusually high activation energy for water transport across the cell plasma membrane was identified indicating that the water transport process is unusually sensitive to temperature (and cooling rate). Although literally all studies on IIF were conducted using protocols with ice-seeding (seeding extracellular ice usually at ≥-7 °C), it is not used for cell cryopreservation by vitrification that is becoming increasingly popular today. In this article, we show that ice-seeding has a significant impact on IIF. With ice-seeding and cooling at 60 °C/min, IIF was observed to occur over a wide range from approximately -8 to -48 °C with a clear change of the ice nucleation mechanism (from surface- to volume-catalyzed nucleation) at approximately -43 °C. On the contrary, without ice-seeding, IIF occurred over a much narrower range from approximately -19 to -27 °C without a noticeable change of the nucleation mechanism. Moreover, the kinetics of IIF without ice-seeding was found to be strongly temperature (and cooling rate) dependent. These findings indicate the importance of quantifying the IIF kinetics in the absence of ice-seeding during cooling for development of optimal vitrification protocols of cell cryopreservation.