Cardiorenal risk factors.

The chronic renocardiac syndrome, in which chronic kidney disease (CKD) contributes to impairment of cardiac function or structure, is associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular events. The prevalence of CKD in the U.S. population is approximately 11% and has been increasing over time. Numerous studies have demonstrated an association of CKD, defined by the presence of reduced glomerular filtration rate and/or albuminuria with adverse cardiovascular and renal outcomes. These data suggest that both albuminuria and glomerular filtration rate, which can be performed with minimally increased costs, should be included in the assessment of risk stratification for individual patients, in addition to traditional cardiovascular risk factors.