Impacts of metal oxide nanoparticles on marine phytoplankton.

Information on the toxicity of environmentally relevant concentrations of nanoparticles in marine ecosystems is needed for informed regulation of these emerging materials. We tested the effects of two types of metal oxide nanoparticles, TiO(2) and ZnO, on population growth rates of four species of marine phytoplankton representing three major coastal groups (diatoms, chlorophytes, and prymnesiophytes). These metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are becoming common components in many industrial, household, and cosmetic products that are released into coastal ecosystems. Titania NPs showed no measurable effect on growth rates of any species, while ZnO NPs significantly depressed growth rate of all four species. ZnO NPs aggregated rapidly in seawater, forming particles >400 nm hydrodynamic diameter within 30 min, and dissolved quickly, reaching equilibrium concentrations within 12 h. Toxicity of ZnO NPs to phytoplankton was likely due to dissolution, release, and uptake of free zinc ions, but specific nanoparticulate effects may be difficult to disentangle from effects due to free zinc ions. A modeling approach based on a Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) framework was used to estimate sublethal effects of the two NPs on phytoplankton populations. Concentrations that were estimated to have no effect on population growth (NEC) were (one standard error in parentheses) 428 (58) μg L(-1) ZnO for the diatom Skeletonema marinoi and 223 (56) μg L(-1) for Thalassiosira pseudonana. NEC could not be estimated for the other taxa but were within the range of 500-1000 μg L(-1). Our results suggest that effects of metal oxide NPs on marine organisms is likely to vary with particle type and organism taxonomy.