Analgesia for small animal thoracic surgery.

Thoracic surgery in small animals is considered a painful procedure, resulting in alterations in pulmonary function and respiratory mechanics. Modifications in surgical approach and technique and selection of the appropriate analgesic protocol may improve outcomes in dogs and cats after thoracic surgery. Systemic administration of opioids and other agents, intercostal and intrapleural blocks, and epidural analgesia are among the most common options for pain management after thoracic surgery in small animals.