Flow tracing microparticle sensors designed for enhanced X-ray contrast.

In applying the X-ray particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique to biofluid flows, the most pivotal prerequisite is suitable flow tracing sensors which should be detected effectively by the X-ray imaging system. In this study, to design those flow tracing sensors, X-ray contrast agent Iopamidol was encapsulated into the poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) microparticles crosslinked by glutaraldehyde (GA). The characteristics of the fabricated particle sensors were determined by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, laser Doppler electrophoresis and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H NMR). The amount of Iopamidol in the microparticles was measured using the energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and (1)H NMR. The physical properties of the PVA microparticles are effectively controlled in terms of the average particle size, degree of crosslinking, degree of swelling and encapsulation efficiency of Iopamidol. By changing the amount of crosslinker, the degree of crosslinking and the efficiency of the Iopamidol encapsulation reached to the optimal. To some extent, the zeta-potential of the PVA microparticles is increased in less ionic media where the particles can effectively repel each other prohibiting aggregation. The X-ray absorption ability of the designed tracing sensors was examined by a synchrotron X-ray imaging technique. The X-ray absorption coefficients of the particle sensors were expressed by an exponential law assuming the spherical shape of the microparticles. The X-ray contrast agent, Iopamidol, was successfully encapsulated into the bio-compatible and bio-degradable PVA. With the controlled physical properties of the flow tracing sensors designed in this study, the particle sensors exhibit excellent X-ray absorption contrast fairly applicable in biological systems. (c) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.