Psychological stress and anxiety in middle to late childhood and early adolescence: manifestations and management.

Late and middle childhood and early adolescence are filled with transitions that can cause psychological stress. Degrees of stress experienced are a function of both emotional response and coping abilities. Age, gender, development, temperament, and parental models affect both susceptibility to stress and effectiveness of coping mechanisms. Failure to recognize manifestations of stress, and to assist with the development of positive coping skills, causes detrimental effects to the child's mental, physical, and emotional health. This article will enable primary care nurses to recognize signs of stress, assess coping skills, and provide children and caregivers with interventions and anticipatory guidance necessary to successfully navigate childhood stressors.