Mucosal vaccines: novel advances in technology and delivery.

Mucosal vaccines are considered the most suitable type of vaccines to combat emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases because of their ability to induce both mucosal and systemic immunity. Considerable advances have been made toward the development of mucosal vaccines against influenza virus and rotavirus. Many additional mucosal vaccines are in development, including vaccines against cholera, typhoid, traveler's diarrhea and respiratory infections. In addition to oral and nasal vaccines, transcutaneous (or skin patch) and sublingual immunizations are now part of a new generation of mucosal vaccines. Furthermore, a rice-based oral vaccine (MucoRice) has been receiving global attention as a new form of cold chain-free vaccine, because it is stable at room temperature for a prolonged period. This review describes recent developments in mucosal vaccines with promising preclinical and clinical results.