Emerging roles of chemokines in prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer (PCa) represents the second leading cause of death among all cancer types in men in Europe and North America. Among the factors suspected to control PCa, incidence and progression, chemokines, and their receptors are now intensively studied. Chemokines are produced by tumor cells and also by the stromal microenvironment, both in the primary tumor site and in distant metastatic locations. The wide and differential distribution of chemokines and their receptors account for the pleiotropic actions of chemokines in PCa, including the modulation of growth, angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis, and hormone escape. This review will focus on the roles and the mechanisms of action and regulation of chemokines in the different steps of PCa development and will discuss the novel strategies that are currently envisioned to target chemokines in PCa.