Molecular mechanisms of early life stress--lessons from mouse models.

Early life stress is one of the most explicit and undisputed environmental risk factors for disease later in life, including metabolic and psychiatric diseases. The developmental timing and context of stressful stimuli is thereby essential and determines the adaptive or maladaptive consequences. This review, which honors the invaluable accomplishments of one of the pioneers in the field, the late Seymour "Gig" Levine, focuses on the contribution of mouse models to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that govern the acute and persistent effects of early life stress. The importance of the postnatal period and the complex role of maternal care in regulating the offspring's stress system activity are specifically addressed. Further, I discuss the possible molecular mechanisms that may be responsible for the persistent effects of early life stress, including the important issue of resilience and susceptibility to adverse life events. (c) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.