Characteristics, formation, and pathophysiology of glucosepane: a major protein cross-link.

Advanced glycation end products are the results of a series of chemical reactions collectively known as the Maillard reaction, or nonenzymatic glycation, and sometimes cross-link proteins, thereby impairing their normal function. Glucosepane is the most abundant protein cross-link found in vivo so far and mainly has been shown to accumulate in the extracellular matrix, where it cross-links collagen. Levels of glucosepane increase with aging. By increasing collagen stiffness, glucosepane cross-links may have significant implications in several age-related diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Although the formation pathways for glucosepane are relatively well researched, much is still unknown about the accumulation and pathophysiology of glucosepane.