The role of categories and spatial cuing in global-scale location estimates.

Seven independent groups estimated the location of North American cities using both spatial and numeric response modes and a variety of perceptual and memory supports. These supports included having location markers for each city color coded by nation and identified by name, giving participants the opportunity to see and update all their estimates throughout the task, and allowing them to respond directly on a map. No manipulation mitigated the influence of categories on the judgments, but some manipulations improved within-region ordinal accuracy. The data provide evidence that the city and regional levels are independent, spatial and numeric response modalities affect accuracy differently at the different levels, biases at the regional level have multiple sources, and accurate spatial cues improve estimates primarily by limiting the use of global landmarks to partition the response space. Results support J. Huttenlocher, L. V. Hedges, and S. Duncan's (1991) theory of spatial location estimates and extend it to the domain of real-world geography.