Transfer parameter values in temperate forest ecosystems: a review.

Compared to agricultural lands, forests are complex ecosystems as they can involve diverse plant species associations, several vegetative strata (overstorey, shrubs, herbaceous and other annual plant layer) and multi-layered soil profiles (forest floor, hemi-organic and mineral layers). A high degree of variability is thus generally observed in radionuclide transfers and redistribution patterns in contaminated forests. In the long term, the soil compartment represents the major reservoir of radionuclides which can give rise to long-term plant and hence food contamination. For practical reasons, the contamination of various specific forest products has commonly been quantified using the aggregated transfer factor (T(ag) in m(2)kg(-1)) which integrates various environmental parameters including soil and plant type, root distribution as well as nature and vertical distribution of the deposits. Long lasting availability of some radionuclides was shown to be the source of much higher transfer in forest ecosystems than in agricultural lands. This study aimed at reviewing the most relevant quantitative information on radionuclide transfers to forest biota including trees, understorey vegetation, mushrooms, berries and game animals. For both radiocaesium and radiostrontium in trees, the order of magnitude of mean T(ag) values was 10(-3)m(2)kg(-1) (dry weight). Tree foliage was usually 2-12 times more contaminated than trunk wood. Maximum contamination of tree components with radiocaesium was associated with (semi-)hydromorphic areas with thick humus layers. The transfer of radionuclides to mushrooms and berries is high, in comparison with foodstuffs grown in agricultural systems. Concerning caesium uptake by mushrooms, the transfer is characterized by a very large variability of T(ag), from 10(-3) to 10(1)m(2)kg(-1) (dry weight). For berries, typical values are around 0.01-0.1 m(2)kg(-1) (dry weight). Transfer of radioactive caesium to game animals and reindeer and the rate of activity reduction, quantified as an ecological half-life, reflect the soil and pasture conditions at individual locations. Forests in temperate and boreal regions differ with respect to soil type and vegetation, and a faster decline of muscle activity concentrations in deer occurs in the temperate zone. However, in wild boar the caesium activity concentration shows no decline because of its special feeding habits. In the late phase, i.e. at least a few months since the external radionuclide contamination on feed plants has been removed, a T(ag) value of 0.01 m(2)kg(-1) (fresh weight) is common for (137)Cs in the muscles of adult moose and terrestrial birds living in boreal forests, and 0.03 m(2)kg(-1) (fresh weight) for arctic hare. Radiocaesium concentrations in reindeer muscle in winter may exceed the summer content by a factor of more than two, the mean T(ag) values for winter ranging from 0.02 to 0.8 m(2)kg(-1) (fresh weight), and in summer from 0.04 to 0.4m(2)kg(-1). The highest values are found in the year of initial contamination, followed by a gradual reduction. In waterfowl a relatively fast decline in uptake of (137)Cs has been found, with T(ag) values changing from 0.01 to 0.002 m(2)kg(-1) (fresh weight) in the three years after the contaminating event, the rate being determined by the dynamics of (137)Cs in aquatic ecosystems.