Diabetes and cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction: application of animal models.

When diabetes is associated with cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction, there is a poor prognosis and increased morbidity and mortality. Information on the mechanisms of diabetes-associated autonomic dysfunction has been provided by advanced studies using physiological, pharmacological, anatomical and molecular methods in experimental animal models of insulin deficiency and resistance. This has been augmented by new approaches which combine diabetes induction with genetically modified animal models. The aim of this review is to outline and discuss the animal models used for the study of insulin deficiency and insulin resistance with a focus on autonomic neural interactions. The goal is to better understand the clinical relevance of cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction associated with diabetes.