Hormesis, ethics, and public policy: an overview.

This article synthesizes the major points made in the preceding essays on the topic of "Hormesis and Ethics." The questions and concerns raised in these essays are organized into three general categories: (1) scientific issues, (2) practical concerns, and (3) "explicitly ethical" considerations. The present article concludes with several suggestions. First, researchers would do well to address scientific concerns about the generalizability of hormesis. Second, it would be helpful to gather further information about the frequency that hormetic effects are beneficial for organisms over the long term. Third, more information is needed about the toxic exposures that the public is already receiving and about the potential synergistic effects of those exposures. Fourth, further reflection is warranted about whether regulations should, on one hand, maximize the ratio of benefits to risks for the population as a whole or, on the other hand, protect individuals from health risks to which they do not consent and for which they cannot easily be compensated.